Possible approaches and strategies for MPA practitioners
Whether you’re responsible for an existing MPA, revising an existing MPA or planning a new one, climate change is an essential consideration for ongoing management.
Few existing MPA management plans address climate change in a useful or effective way. However, many recent publications address adaptation in the marine environment, and specifically for MPAs (e.g., Gross et al., 2016; GBRMPA, 2017; Otero et al., 2013). For example, the Great Barrier Reef’s Blueprint For Resilience outlines 10 initiatives (many of which are outlined in Table 3 in Section 4.2) intended to increase resilience.
There is no “silver bullet”. Addressing climate change in MPAs will require a range of approaches that must be both realistic and contemporary, and could include:
Addressing other pressures such as unsustainable fishing practices, poaching and poor water quality, to improve the resilience of MPAs.
Understanding the range of spatial and temporal scales at which drivers and pressures operate, and the variable and uncertain processes of recovery (see Module 4 Climate change uncertainty in planning and management Q&A).
Projecting a simple and clear message about the reality of climate change, the need for action on emissions, and the vulnerability of most marine ecosystems (e.g., Higgason & Brown, 2009).
Conducting effective monitoring linked to publicly available reporting to keep managers, communities and decision-makers aware of conditions and trends (see Module 4 MPA monitoring in the face of climate change Q&A).
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Climate change needs to be considered in all stages of the MPA management cycle
Given that climate change is such a critical issue, it needs to be considered at all stages of the MPA management cycle, not just when an MPA is established.
Five steps in a staged approach to management are outlined below (these five steps are similar to the MPA management cycle described elsewhere). These are explained more fully in Gross et al. (2016), with a separate chapter providing additional information for each step.
The first step is to build a solid foundation - gather knowledge and resources, plan for change, and develop long-term capacity for informed and flexible management. Next is to assess vulnerability and risk, conduct quantitative or qualitative analyses to determine which species - ecosystems and other values are most vulnerable to changing conditions, and identify key vulnerabilities. Third, identify and select adaptation options - recognize and prioritize strategic and tactical actions to achieve short- and long-term adaptation objectives. Then, implement actions - take action based on all of the above steps. Fifth and final step, monitor and adjust - assess indicators of success and failure and use that information to evaluate and recalibrate decisions.
Build a strong foundation
Start by determining the vision, goals, and objectives for your MPA. Ensure these are:
“Nested” (the vision contains the goals, which contain the objectives) and clearly linked
“SMART” (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Timebound)
Not in conflict with each other, and with a clear-cut priority for all your objectives; otherwise, decision-makers can pick and choose.
Be clear which is the primary objective, and that all other objectives follow on from that.
Determining your goals will depend on what questions are posed, what management aims to achieve, and what the political environment will allow. Are you aiming to prevent change (which may be unrealistic in a changing climate)? Or allow slow change? Or prepare for a major ecological shift (i.e., a flip of the ecosystem into a new state)?
You need to determine the baseline against which changes can be benchmarked (recognizing that most MPAs today are likely already to be “disturbed”). As far as is practicable, set out the key values of your MPA at a realistic time in the past (e.g., the date of formal declaration as an MPA). This becomes a baseline against which any MPA manager can assess the condition and trend over time for key indicators.
Assessing the current condition should include: the status of specific key values (indicators); the key threats facing your MPA (including the main climate stressors – see Table 1 in chapter “What are the challenges to addressing climate change?”); where those threats have originated; and the implications for key values.
Your MPA boundaries may be defined (e.g., by legislation) but understanding how those boundaries relate to the ecological reality is important (e.g., do migratory species spend most of their life cycle outside the MPA? Are the major threats originating upstream, or outside the MPA?).
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Assess vulnerability and risk
To understand the vulnerability of your MPA, you should assess its level of exposure to key climate stressors (i.e., the likelihood that climate stressors will impact the key values) and sensitivity (i.e., the consequences for the key values).
These assessments combine to give the potential impact, which may then be modified by the level of adaptive capacity (see section 3.1) to produce the overall vulnerability (IPCC, 2007).
Various publications explain how a vulnerability framework might be applied (e.g., Downing et al, 2002; Day et al., 2020) though few show specifically how such a framework has been applied in an MPA (e.g., Heron et al., 2020; Wilson et al., 2020).
Identify and select adaptation options
Adaptation is about testing new ideas and strategies, and learning from your failures. You should draw widely upon emerging knowledge, understanding, creativity and experience to develop responses within the urgent timeframe needed.
Think beyond the spatial extent of the MPA (“think outside the box”).
Think beyond the short term.
Think about possible responses at different levels (e.g., at a few specific sites compared with the entire MPA).
Rethink your response in the light of new information.
Also consider other forms of adaptive capacity, such as educating and/or changing expectations to adjust to new opportunities or reduce potential damage. This normally requires a good relationship with key stakeholders (including any dependent industries and local communities) and rights-holders, including Indigenous communities – how they relate to the MPA, what motivates them and their negotiating positions. All stakeholders and rights-holders will need to play a role in how the response to climate change is framed and management decisions are implemented (Module 4 Indigenous engagement for climate change).
Implement actions
Each MPA is unique and so are the most appropriate management approaches. These may be limited by political commitments, available resources, current understanding, time and energy.
Continually monitor the implications of any management interventions so that they can be adapted to the changing environmental, social, economic or political realities.
Monitor and adjust
Effective monitoring is an important strategy for addressing climate change (Tittensor et al., 2019), especially monitoring the key values for which an MPA was initially designated. This requires the development of a realistic monitoring programme to assess conditions and trends over time for the key values affected by climate change.
An effective monitoring system only needs a few carefully chosen indicators to capture a range of information about the key values of the MPA – without costing too much time or money to monitor. In addition to biodiversity indicators, choose some social, cultural and economic indicators to fully understand how climate change is impacting your MPA from a broader sustainability perspective. Good examples of these types of monitoring are available in the Social and Economic Long-Term Monitoring Program (SELTMP) for the Great Barrier Reef. Approaches that integrate natural and socioeconomic systems often provide the best foundation for effective actions.
A commitment to effective, properly resourced and regular monitoring of the health of an MPA is important to enable the development of long-term data sets for useful assessment. If monitoring shows an MPA is ineffective, efforts need to be urgently directed to address the highest priority deficiencies (Tittensor et al., 2019).
Management actions and adaptation strategies
Management actions need to be carefully considered to avoid potential adverse impacts. For example, beach nourishment aimed at preventing erosion and reducing flood risk could harm coastal biodiversity. Building a seawall without an understanding of coastal dynamics may well deflect the wave action but cause erosion in an adjacent area. In contrast, effective wetland restoration measures may have multiple positive benefits (e.g., contributing to flood mitigation, carbon storage and ecosystem protection).
A number of publications provide detailed guidance on various approaches to climate change adaptation and mitigation in MPAs:
Marshall & Schuttenberg (2006) provide early guidance with the “Reef Manager’s Guide to Coral Bleaching”.
Maynard et al. (2010) identify local management responses in the southern Great Barrier Reef with the aim to build resilience into conservation efforts.
Simard et al. (2016) outline a range of adaptation and mitigation synergies for MPAs, along with various opportunities and challenges.
In the US, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) provides guidance to help national marine sanctuaries address climate change, including impact profiles and vulnerability assessments for most sanctuaries.
The same NOAA web page (at the bottom of the page) lists methods designed to reduce the environmental footprint and increase energy efficiency across various MPAs.
Evans et al. (2011) scope potential adaptation options and the limits to adaptation in the Great Barrier Reef.
Specific actions you should consider undertaking to counter the impacts of climate change on your MPA
Identify and protect a resilience network
Some examples and case studies are:
Bleaching response - Belize
NOAA’s coral reef watch programme
Dramatically enhance the compliance programme to maximize benefits from the resilience network
Some examples and case studies are:
Multiple agencies work together to achieve GBR compliance
A climate change guide for legal and compliance teams in Australia
GBR fishing vessel tracking
Protect key species for recovery
Some examples and case studies are:
Study on climate change and lobster fishery associated with Xcalak Reefs National Park, Mexico
Sea turtle recovery – Caribbean
Control invasive species, including naturally occurring problem species and those becoming an issue due to climate change
Encourage monitoring using citizen science and improve surveillance and reporting to increase knowledge of the extent and severity of outbreaks of invasive species and guide in-water efforts.
Some examples and case studies are:
Crown-of-thorns starfish control programme – GBR strategic management framework and reporting dashboard
Active and localized restoration efforts
Develop a policy to provide guidance on restoration activities (e.g., what might be appropriate; what is likely to be wasted effort).
Establish restoration demonstration sites, to test, improve and where appropriate scale up restoration methods.
Some examples and case studies are:
Build awareness and support to address climate change and reduce GHG emissions
Some examples and case studies are:
GBRMPA’s Outlook Report – a regular forward-looking report with infographics showing the condition and trend of key values
NOAA sites have increased their energy efficiency using solar arrays, hybrid cars, recycling, etc.
GBRMPA’s Reef Guardian Schools programme
STINAPA Bonaire Junior Ranger progradmme teaches schoolchildren about climate change
Foster partnerships for action and innovation
Some examples and case studies are:
Saint Lucia National Trust south office – rainwater harvesting
Roatan – Polo Water Board small-scale sewage treatment facilities
Adapt policy and legislation
Develop a contemporary policy framework enabling restoration interventions in the MPA, and review existing policies to ensure consistency.
Ensure a strong statutory link between coastal planning, conservation and hazard protection to deliver an integrated coastal management approach.
Some examples and case studies are:
NCCARF Policy Guidance Brief 1 for coastal planning
Database of climate change laws
Develop decision-support systems
Some examples and case studies are:
Eye of the Reef (GBR) – app for citizen science
Implement blue carbon mitigation measures
Protect and restore blue carbon stocks (e.g., mangroves, tidal marshes, wetlands, seagrasses). As carbon sinks, these diverse coastal habitats account for ~50% of all carbon in ocean sediments.
Some examples and case studies are:
Blue Carbon Initiative recommendations
Turneffe Atoll Marine Reserve and mangrove conservation -agreements with private islands
Guidance for MPA managers on how to develop/implement a blue carbon project
Build resilience of local communities
Promote sustainable livelihood options for fishers and their families in conjunction with specialist NGOs and relevant authorities/partners.
Apply an analytical framework to assess livelihood vulnerability to climate change.
Some examples and case studies are:
Microenterprise with fishing communities developed by Belize Audubon Society
Manage water quality impacts and coastal erosion
Tackle water quality issues, particularly in catchments known to be causing adverse downstream outcomes; periodically report progress against clear and specific targets.
Evaluate adaptation options via local early action planning (LEAP) for adaptation to climate change.
Some examples and case studies are:
GBR Water Quality report cards
Design considerations
When designing a new MPA or MPA network, or redesigning an existing one, principles to consider include:
Replicating no-take areas as insurance against natural or manmade disasters.
Representing a minimum amount of every known physical habitat in the MPA.
Maximizing available environmental information (e.g., migration patterns) when designing the network.
The following publications (listed in date order) provide a wealth of guidance:
Eleven Biophysical Operational Principles, recommended by a scientific steering committee, were used in 2000-2003 when rezoning the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Note these are only planning principles, not specific targets or rules. A further four social, economic, cultural and management feasibility operational principles recommended by a social-economic steering committee were also applied, as far as was practicable.
The Guide for Planners and Managers to Design Resilient Marine Protected Area Networks in a Changing Climate outlines practical methods for planners and managers to follow:
Scientific Guidelines for Designing Resilient Marine Protected Area Networks in a Changing Climate (2012) expand on the above guide to produce a more comprehensive publication.
Reside et al. (2018) provide a comprehensive table outlining methods for incorporating climate change into each stage of conservation planning, along with associated research gaps.
Wilson et al. (2020) review the state of knowledge for adapting existing and future MPAs to climate change. They assessed 27 case studies to derive a generalized conservation planning framework incorporating climate change adaptation to inform MPA design. Most real-world examples of adaptation in MPA planning are derived from tropical reefs, highlighting the need for research in other ecosystems and habitat types.
The review found contrasting recommendations for adaptation strategies at the planning stage, either focusing only on climate refugia, or aiming for representative protection of areas encompassing the full range of expected climate change impacts. Recommendations for ongoing MPA management were more unified, focusing on adaptative management approaches.
TNC’s Reef Resilience Toolkit includes guidance to support the development of resilient MPA networks. These principles and recommendations can be applied to existing MPAs or used for planning future MPA networks, at any scale. Online trainings are also available on climate-smart design and marine management (e.g. Reef Resilience Network.
Considering ecological connectivity
When designing a resilient MPA network, “ecological connectivity” is a significant concept. It refers to the unimpeded movement of species and the flow of natural processes that enables an ecosystem to function properly. Human-induced “fragmentation” can destroy connectivity by disrupting natural flow patterns or breaking up a natural habitat. Retaining ecological connectivity is essential in the face of a changing climate (Gross et al., 2016).
Publications that will help you to consider ecological connectivity in MPAs include:
Harnessing Ecological Spatial Connectivity for Effective Marine Protected Areas and Resilient Marine Ecosystems: Scientific Synthesis & Action Agenda (US MPA Federal Advisory Committee, 2017).
Marxan Connect represents a recent advance in considering connectivity in the design of MPAs, though like all decision-support tools, it is dependent on good quality spatial data. Poor or sporadic data and failing to adequately consider all the essential social, economic and political aspects of spatial planning will lead to inappropriate results.
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